Trigger Warnings: Genocide, Slavery, Rape, Murder, Torture

This article examines the history of the Catholic Mission system in California with targeted analysis on the history of the Santa Clara Mission (now Santa Clara University in Santa Clara Valley, aka Silicon Valley). Today Santa Clara city & Santa Clara University still openly celebrate the Santa Clara Mission & systemically omit acknowledging the actual history of what happened there.

Pre-Colonial Santa Clara Valley

The first human inhabitants of Santa Clara Valley, the Ohlone, arrived at least 8,000-10,000 years ago.[1] Evidence of Native Californians has been found on the Santa Clara University campus dating from the Middle Period.[2] In the mid-1700s, the Native Californians constituted 1/3 of all Native Americans in the United States, with 300,000-1,000,000 indigenous people located between San Francisco and Big Sur, with 50 documented villages and groups and at least eight dialects.[3] The Santa Clara area was one of the tribal districts and contained three large villages and several smaller ones.[4]

The flora and fauna, in their variety and sheer abundance, would be unrecognizable today. Antelope, deer, and elk surged through the vast grasslands. Mountain lions and grizzly bears searched for food. Forests, far larger than today’s and filled with huge, old growth trees, teemed with animals while oak groves proliferated. Shellfish thronged tidal estuaries. Vast schools of fish navigated rivers and bays. Great flocks of gulls, pelicans, and seagulls wheeled overhead. In the open ocean, fish, whales, seals, and sea otters swarm by the thousands along the coast. [5]

Colorful sunrise over dark forest-covered mountains — Copyright Santa Clara Valley Open Space Authority

The physical geography of Santa Clara County, situated between the Santa Cruz Mountains to the west and the Diablo Mountain Range to the east, was formed quite recently in geological history. Santa Clara Valley was created by the sudden growth of the Santa Cruz Mountains and the Diablo Mountain Range, during the later Cenozoic era. This was a period of intense mountain building in California when the folding and thrusting of the earth's crust, combined with active volcanism, gave shape to the present state of California. Hence, Santa Clara Valley is a structural valley, created by mountain building, as opposed to an erosional valley, or one which has undergone the wearing away of the earth's surface by natural agents. The underlying geology of the Santa Cruz Mountains was also formed by the sediment of the ancient seas, where marine shale points to Miocene origin. Today one can still find evidence of this in the Santa Cruz Mountains, where shark's teeth and the remains of maritime life are still found as high as Scott's Valley, a city nestled in the mountains.[6]

The Santa Cruz Mountains and Diablo Mountain Range created a sheltered valley. Located south of the San Francisco Bay, Santa Clara Valley offered shelter from the cold, damp climate of the San Francisco region and coastal areas west of the Santa Cruz Mountains, and was no doubt inviting to the first human inhabitants. Historically, the Tamien-speaking Ohlone Native Americans were the first documented inhabitants of the Santa Clara Valley region, although the oak lined hills and valley undoubtedly had known earlier Native inhabitants and migrations, now lost to history. [7]

Colonialization

The arrival of European soldiers and missionaries marked the beginning of a period of “gut-wrenching violence, dislocation, and erasure.” Tens of thousands of indigenous people in Santa Clara Valley & California coastal areas were brought to Catholic missions. These missions were essentially concentration camps where Native Californians were beaten, whipped, burned, maimed, raped, tortured, and killed.[10] The Mission Santa Clara described their relation to the Native Californians as “conquest” and frequently described the Native people as “ignorant.” [11]

Californian missions enable the “Spiritual Conquest” of California.
- Junipero Serra [8]

The annals of Santa Clara College note that the first attempt at colonization of Native Californians was made in 1683, including three Jesuit Fathers. They built a settlement called San Bruno with roughly 400 Native Californians. The settlement only lasted a year. Then, Father Juan Maria Salvatierra, residing at Sonora, starting the “Pious Fund” which became the main support of the future missions in Baja and Alta California. A royal license was granted to the zealous missionary to "reduce and settle" California in terms of complete responsibility and control, spiritual, financial, and military. The escoltas of guards were to be paid by Salvatierra and were given the rank of soldiers in the army, and their commander under the Jesuit Fathers was made the Royal Judge and the Executive officer over all Spanish subjects as well as the natives. In 1687, Father Juan Maria Salvatierra and five soldiers and an ensign (forming his military force), landed on a spot near the Bay of San Francisco. He then founded his first mission, “Our Lady of Loretto.” They went on to build six additional missions before his death in 1717. Those and additional missions (16-20 total) where were administered until 1768.[12] There was structural violence under the Jesuit missions, as the Franciscan missions. [13]

After 71 years of California missions, the Jesuits were expelled from California and called back to Europe. The Catholic Church then immediately commissioned the Franciscans to take over where the Jesuits had left off, and the program moved steadily on. By the year 1769, the sons of Saint Francis, under Serra, had extended their ministrations to the upper reaches of the province. Little by little they made their way up the Camino Real until, by the year 1830, they were in control of twenty-one institutions. One of these missions had been established a short distance from the southern extremity of the Bay of San Francisco, and had been named Santa Clara. On January 12, 1777 two humble Franciscan friars, with a squad of soldiers and a handful of colonists, raised the Cross and the flag of Spain at Mission Santa Clara.[14] By 1780, Governor of California Felipe de Neve criticized he missions saying “the Indians fate was worse than that of slaves.” [15]

The lands of Mission Santa Clara totaled over 80,000 acres at its height. The Mission Church moved or was rebuilt several times due to disasters like flooding, earthquake, and fire. There have been five sites and six churches over the years.[16] Even upon the initial founding of Mission Santa Clara, on Tamien Nation land, the Native people wanted nothing to do with it other than helping themselves to the Spanish livestock. Reinforcements were requested from the presidios to locate the mules, which were being roasted by Native people. The Native people fought off the attacks from the Spanish, and the Spanish killed three Natives “as an example” and kidnapped the rest of the Natives to the mission where they were whipped. Unsurprisingly, no Native people consented to baptism by the Franciscans for months after the Mission Santa Clara was founded. [17]

In the early 1800s, Mission Santa Clara began venturing into the Central Valley to procure more hostages including Valley Yokus and Plains and Sierra Miwok. [18] Within the missions, many of the so-called religious “converts” resisted and persisted, continuing to worship their deities and conduct native dances & rituals in secret. In some cases, the Native Californians became fugitives who allied to fight back in armed uprisings.[19]

Concentration Camps

Despite romantic interpretations found in literature and popular history, the California missions were coercive authoritarian institutions. Few Native Californians came into the missions willingly, and those brought into the mission were not free to leave at will. The Native Californians were under the absolute control of the Fathers and the soldiers, who enforced Catholic moral codes while instructing “these stupid ignorant saves.” After baptism, Native Californians who were married were allowed to live outside the mission compound but “within the sound of the mission bell” and the couple had to provide “payment” of all of their children, who would be forced to live in the barracks inside the compound. [20] The Ohlone at Mission Santa Clara were forced to perform manual labor at the mission and were also known to be forced to work on other missions and outposts.[21] If the Native Californians did not complete their assigned work at the missions, they were not given food. Any attempts to collect food were punished. [22]

“This mission to my people, was a concentration camp.”
- Andy Tautimez Salas, chair of Kizh-Gabrieleño Band of Mission Indians [9]

In 1815, a Russian visitor taken prisoner by the Spanish, reported horrifying events at Mission San Fernando. He described an event there the Spanish had just recaptured a group of Natives who had fled the mission. He reported the Natives were brought back “bound with rawhide ropes and bleeding from wounds.” He said the next day, some runaways were tied on sticks and beaten with straps. The worst was what the Spanish mission did to a chief who had tried to escape. The Spanish had prepared a dead calf, skinning it and filling it with poison. The mission leaders “sewed the chief into the skin while the animal was still warm,” tied it to a stake, and then when he died from the poison, then tied his corpse up on display.[23]

Through fire, California missions remain a refuge for the sacred | Angelus News

In 1816, two visitors aboard a Russian ship that traded with both Mission San Francisco and Mission Santa Clara observed the Father’s attitudes towards the Native Californians. According to one of the travelers, Albert Chamisso, “The contempt which the missionaries have for the people, to who thy are sent, seems to us, considering their pious occupation, a very unfortunate circumstance. None of them appear to have troubled themselves about the Native Californian history, customers, religions, or languages: ‘They are irrational savages and nothing more can be said of them. Who would trouble himself with their stupidity? Who would spend his time on it?;” [24]

Stories of violence at the Santa Clara Mission, inflicted by the Franciscans against the Ohlone, include:

1783: Pedro Fages, Governor of Alta California, “chastised some of the heathens in the neighborhood of Santa Clara who had killed some mares” and when “the heathen took up arms,” Fages’ soldiers killed two of them. The Ohlone were so frightened “they voluntarily gave up some of their children for baptism.” [25]
1786: Father Peña beat four Native Californians to death. [26]
1795: When Native Californians “tried to escape,” troops went on expeditions to “go after deserters.”[27]
1799: Small squads of soldiers (an escolta) were sent from the presidio in San Francisco to serve at the mission. In 1799 five soldiers, a corporal and four privates, were stationed at Mission Santa Clara.[28] There were also six houses for “troops.” [29] At another point there were five soldiers and a corporal. [30]
In 1812, The Spanish government sent a questionnaire to the Missions and in Mission Santa Clara’s response, they described their relationship with the Native Californians as “conquering” the Ohlone.
There was a jail at the Mission Santa Clara that was used to incarcerate Native Californians.[31] The jail was built via forced labor by the Native Californians.[32] The Mission Santa Clara also had “swivel guns” and “three cannons.” [33]
The Franciscans were known to murder Native Californians with “lashes,” to hang them in them in trees by their feet, to “scarify their buttocks with swords,” to hang them and then have Mission staff alternate beatings until “they have all had a turn.” [34]
Mission records include a document titled “Castigo,” which says: “The Indians are children of punishment, and almost everything good that they do is out of fear being flogged, as experience demonstrates, for what brings them to confession, to hear Mass, and similar things, is not devotion but fear.”[35]

Floggings, in particular, seem to have increased in frequency and severity after 1790. [36] In the late 1700s, California Governor Borica requested an investigation be opened into the treatment of Native Californians, noting reports the missions were treating them with cruelty and brutality, subjecting them to forced labor, & filthy living conditions. Visitors also noted the strict discipline and unproportionally punishments at the missions. A visitor to the Monterey Mission in 1786 noted they saw Native Californians “in irons,” “in the stocks,” and heard the “noise of the whip.” He noted women were not whipped in public, but instead in an enclosed and distant place so “their cries may not excite too lively compassion.” [37]

After one of the first major exoduses from Mission San Francisco & Mission Santa Clara in 1794, the comandante who recaptured many of the Native Americans asked them why they left and answers included “floggings,” “floggings and hunger,” “imprisonment for drinking,” 25 lashes for leaving in search of food,” “whipped five times for crying over the death of his wife and children,” “put in stocks while sick,” &“fear from seeing friends flogged.”[38] Other reasons included “because of many whippings,” “the death of his family,” “he was whipped after crying over the death of his brother,” “to not die of hunger.”[39]

In 1805, Native Californians at Mission Santa Clara threatened to burn down the mission and kill the Fathers if the floggings and punishments continued. Troops were sent from nearby missions to Mission Santa Clara to control the Natives. Around this time Mission Santa Clara father Catala and Viadar declared there were no more Ohlone to “conquer” except towards the east, and began kidnapping non-Ohlone people. After 1820, the Ohlone found themselves the minority at the Mission Santa Clara, surrounded Yokut people and others along the San Joaquin River. [40]

Native Californians frequently deserted the missions and armed rebellions occurred at Missions Dolores, San Jose and Santa Clara. Led by Pomponio at Mission Dolores (early 1820s), by the famous Estanislao at Mission San Jose, and by Cipriano at Mission Santa Clara, indigenous guerrilla armies combined the forces of both Ohlone who had runaway from Missions and Natives from villages the Spanish had not yet dominated.[41]

[Placeholder for link to article dedicated to Freedom Fighters]

Slavery and Rape

“The Monjeríos were basically prisons for the women and girls. They were locked in at night and were at the mercy of the soldiers and missionaries.
It saddens me to think of their freedom lost, and no one to help or fight for them.”
– Monica V. Arellano, Vice Chairwoman of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe [42]

Colonists’ sexual assaults inflicted further violence and pain during the mission period. Sexual violence against Native women was apparently routine at some times and in some places under Spanish rule. Even Father Serra was aware of the gang rapes and sexual violence. [2] A Native woman in Monterey Presidio accused soldiers of raping her daily. In San Diego, a commandant wrote that soldiers “go by night to nearby villages for the purpose of raping Indian women.” [43] Serra had also received complaints of soldiers sexually assaulting Native children at the missions. [44]

As part of the social controls imposed by the mission system, the Franciscans forced unmarried women and girls as young as seven or eight to live in a dormitory called the monjerío (Spanish for “nunnery”). [45] Two Native men who were at the Mission Buenaventura (Los Angelo), Woqoch & the Chumash man Kitsepawit, reported that the missionaries “took all the best-looking Indian girls and they put them in the nunnery.” [46] The men testified, “the priest had an appointed hour to go there. When he got to nunnery, all were in bed in the big dormitory. The priest would pass by the bed of the superior (maestra) and tap her on the shoulder and she would commence singing. All of the girls would join in which had the effect of drowning out any other sounds.” They added, then “while the singing was going on, the priest would have time to select the girl he wanted and carry out his desires. In this way the preists had sex with all of them, from the superior all the way down the line. The priests will was law.” [47]

Some surviving documents suggest that the monjerío associated with the Mission Santa Clara fifth mission complex was located along Alviso Street, near the Daly Science Complex. These facilities were intended to break intergenerational bonds in order to allow for easier enculturation into European lifeways and to control the sexuality of the mission’s Native residents. These structures also served as a vector for diseases and were frequently the site of sexual assaults perpetrated by colonists.[48]

Single female Native Californians, and the wives of male Native Californians who’s husbands were away from the mission, were forced to stay in barracks which were locked from the outside. The women were prisoners, not allowed to leave the barracks unaccompanied and remained hostages until their marriages. A visitor described these barracks in Mission Santa Clara (Monjeria) as having no windows, one secured door, and resembled “a prison for state criminals” and a “dungeon.” George Vancouver noted that the Franciscan Fathers controlled the entire mission by controlling these women. Another visitor, Otto von Kozebue, noted the “uncleanliness of these barracks baffles description and this is perhaps the cause of the greatest mortality.” [49]

When Native Californian women were caught trying to abort babies conceived through rape, the mission fathers had them beaten for days on end, clamped them in irons, had their heads shaved and forced them to stand at the church altar every Sunday carrying a painted wooden child in their arms.[50] Meanwhile, some sexual assaults were lethal. In one case, three soliders who gang raped a eleven year old Native girl. [51]

California’s four Spanish presidios were built to protect the colony against incursions from the English, the Russians, and any other adventurers who might happen along. The three most important—in San Francisco, San Diego, and Monterey—occupied high ground just above their harbor entrances, cannons poised to rain hot iron down on hostile fleets. [52] Because the Franciscans did not buy/sell the Native people, the mission system was not quite chattel slavery as it became after secularization, thus the missions more resembled penal servitude.[53]

Saint Junipero Serra - My Catholic Life!

California lost its government financing in 1810 & the supply lines from Mexico City broke down due to the imprisonment of the King of Spain by the French in 1808. By 1810, the system of inter-imperial fiscal transfers broke down, and political chaos was spreading from Buenos Aires to Lima, Mexico City, and San Blas. Although Mexico became independent in 1821, the government did not assert authority over Alta California until it sent Jose ́ Mar ́ıa de Echeand ́ıa as governor in 1825. Thus, 1810 to 1824 was a period when imperialists in California were stranded without an empire. [53]

These structural changes caused the relationship between missionaries and Native people to become increasingly conflictive between 1810 and 1824. The increasingly violent relationship between missionaries and Native people after 1810 was perhaps a sign of the unraveling of the imperial structure in California. [54]

santa clara university - Google Search | Santa clara university, Santa clara, College campus — Mission Santa Clara today, part of Santa Clara University

In 2019, California Governor Gavin Newsom issued an Executive Order which “acknowledges and apologizes on behalf of the State for the historical violence, exploitation, dispossession and the attempted destruction of tribal communities which dislocated California Native Americans from their ancestral land and sacred practices.”[55]

Newsom met with tribal leaders to apologize in person for California’s role in the “systemic slaughter” of Native Americans.[56] Newsom recited a published chronicle from the 19th century that listed a tally of Indian deaths, including an account of a white settler who chose to kill children with a revolver instead of a high-caliber shotgun because “it tore them up so bad.”[57] Newsom said:

“It’s called a genocide. That’s what it was: a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that’s the way it needs to be described in the history books. So I am here to say the following: I’m sorry on behalf of the state of California.”[58]

Support Native Californians

Please consider donating to, or otherwise supporting, the Native Californian peoples who’s ancestors were enslaved, beaten, kidnapped, imprisoned, and massacred. Here is a non-extensive list of local tribes & nations:

Tamien Nation (Santa Clara Valley), https://www.tamien.org/
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe (San Francisco Bay Area): http://muwekma.org/
Chumash Ohlone Tribe (San Francisco pennisula): https://ohlonetribe.org/
Amah Mutsun Ohlone Tribe (Gilroy & Hollister): http://amahmutsun.org/
Ohlone Costanoan Esselen Nation (Monterey): http://www.ohlonecostanoanesselennation.org/
Tachi Yokut Tribe (San Joaquin Valley), http://www.tachi-yokut-nsn.gov/

Protest the Mission

Please consider communicating concerns about continued Mission “marketing” to Santa Clara University and the city of Santa Clara.

-Ashley M. Gjovik

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[1] Albion Environmental & Davis J. Powers & Associates, Inc., Master Cultural Resources Treatment Plan for the Santa Clara University 2020 Plan (2020)

[2] Russell K. Skowronek, Ethnohistory of the First Santa Clarans, Discovering Santa Clara University’s Prehistoric Past: CA-SCI-755, (2004)

[3] Will Parrish, Living on Ohlone Land, CounterPunch (2018)

[4] Santa Clara City, History, https://www.santaclaraca.gov/our-city/about-santa-clara/city-history

[5] Richard White, Naming America’s Own Genocide, The Nation (2016)

[6] U.S. National Park Service, Early History, https://www.nps.gov/articles/early-history.htm

[7] U.S. National Park Service, Early History, https://www.nps.gov/articles/early-history.htm

[8] Benjamin Madley, An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, (2017).

[9] Bethania Palma Markus, The “Golden State’s” Brutal Past Through Native Eyes, Truthout (2013)

[10] Will Parrish, Living on Ohlone Land, CounterPunch (2018)

[11] Interrogatorio del Gobierno (1812) y Respuestas de los Padres Ministros de la Misión de Santa Clara (Government's Questionnaire (1812) and Responses by the Fathers Ministers of Mission Santa Clara), https://content.scu.edu/digital/collection/msc/id/78

[12] Santa Clara University, The Annals of Santa Clara College and University, 1851-1951, Part 1, https://content.scu.edu/digital/collection/p17268coll4/id/7/rec/1; Lee M. Panich, Narratives of Persistence: Indigenous Negotiations of Colonialism in Alta and Baja California (2020)

[13] Lee M. Panich, Narratives of Persistence: Indigenous Negotiations of Colonialism in Alta and Baja California (2020)

[14] Santa Clara University, The Annals of Santa Clara College and University, 1851-1951, Part 1, https://content.scu.edu/digital/collection/p17268coll4/id/7/rec/1

[15] Benjamin Madley, An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, (2017).

[16] Santa Clara Univerity, Sites of Mission Santa Clara, https://dh.scu.edu/exhibits/neatline/show/sites-of-mission-santa-clara

[17] Lee M. Panich, Narratives of Persistence: Indigenous Negotiations of Colonialism in Alta and Baja California (2020)

[18] Debra Kitsmiller Barth, A history of the Ohlone Indians of Mission Santa Clara, San Jose State University, (1990)

[19] Will Parrish, Living on Ohlone Land, CounterPunch (2018)

[20] Debra Kitsmiller Barth, A history of the Ohlone Indians of Mission Santa Clara, San Jose State University, (1990)

[21] Russell K. Skowronek, Ethnohistory of the First Santa Clarans, Discovering Santa Clara University’s Prehistoric Past: CA-SCI-755, (2004)

[22] Debra Kitsmiller Barth, A history of the Ohlone Indians of Mission Santa Clara, San Jose State University, (1990)

[23] Elias Castillo, A Cross of Thorns: The Enslavement of California’s Indians by the Spanish Missions, (2015)

[24] Debra Kitsmiller Barth, A history of the Ohlone Indians of Mission Santa Clara, San Jose State University, (1990)

[25] Final Report on the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program Conducted on a Portion of the Mission Santa Clara Indian Neophyte Cemetery (1781-1818): Clareño Muwékma Ya Túnnešte Nómmo Site (CA-SCL-30/H).

[26] Final Report on the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program Conducted on a Portion of the Mission Santa Clara Indian Neophyte Cemetery (1781-1818): Clareño Muwékma Ya Túnnešte Nómmo Site (CA-SCL-30/H).

[27] Lorie Garcia, Santa Clara: From Mission to Municipality, Research Manuscript Series, No.8 (1997).

[28] Lorie Garcia, Santa Clara: From Mission to Municipality, Research Manuscript Series, No.8 (1997).

[29] Report of the condition of Mission Santa Clara, 31st of December of 1823, https://content.scu.edu/digital/collection/msc/id/105

[30] Interrogatorio del Gobierno (1812) y Respuestas de los Padres Ministros de la Misión de Santa Clara (Government's Questionnaire (1812) and Responses by the Fathers Ministers of Mission Santa Clara), https://content.scu.edu/digital/collection/msc/id/78

[31] Final Report on the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program Conducted on a Portion of the Mission Santa Clara Indian Neophyte Cemetery (1781-1818): Clareño Muwékma Ya Túnnešte Nómmo Site (CA-SCL-30/H).

[32] Lorie Garcia, Santa Clara: From Mission to Municipality, Research Manuscript Series, No.8 (1997).

[33] Lorie Garcia, Santa Clara: From Mission to Municipality, Research Manuscript Series, No.8 (1997).

[34] Final Report on the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program Conducted on a Portion of the Mission Santa Clara Indian Neophyte Cemetery (1781-1818): Clareño Muwékma Ya Túnnešte Nómmo Site (CA-SCL-30/H).

[35] Castigo (Punishment), Reflection on the need for clemency when chastising Indians, according to the work of Alonso de la Peña Montenegro, https://content.scu.edu/digital/collection/msc/id/106

[36] Benjamin Madley, California’s First Mass Incarceration System, Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 88, Number 1, (2019)

[37] Debra Kitsmiller Barth, A history of the Ohlone Indians of Mission Santa Clara, San Jose State University, (1990)

[38] Debra Kitsmiller Barth, A history of the Ohlone Indians of Mission Santa Clara, San Jose State University, (1990)

[39] Elias Castillo, A Cross of Thorns: The Enslavement of California’s Indians by the Spanish Missions, (2015)

[40] Lee M. Panich, Narratives of Persistence: Indigenous Negotiations of Colonialism in Alta and Baja California (2020)

[41] Final Report on the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program Conducted on a Portion of the Mission Santa Clara Indian Neophyte Cemetery (1781-1818): Clareño Muwékma Ya Túnnešte Nómmo Site (CA-SCL-30/H).

[42] Michael Anton, California Emerges: The epic story of the founding of the Golden State, City Journal (2015), https://www.city-journal.org/html/california-emerges-13706.html

[43] Benjamin Madley, California’s First Mass Incarceration System, Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 88, Number 1, (2019)

[44] Santa Clara University, https://www.scu.edu/community-heritage-lab/media/

[45] Richard White, Naming America’s Own Genocide, The Nation (2016)

[46] Richard White, Naming America’s Own Genocide, The Nation (2016)

[47] Santa Clara University Digital Exhibits, History Of Peace And Violence At Mission Santa Clara, Santa Clara University

[48] Santa Clara University Digital Exhibits, History Of Peace And Violence At Mission Santa Clara, Santa Clara University

[49] Richard White, Naming America’s Own Genocide, The Nation (2016)

[50] Richard White, Naming America’s Own Genocide, The Nation (2016)

[51] Santa Clara University Digital Exhibits, History Of Peace And Violence At Mission Santa Clara, Santa Clara University

[52] Debra Kitsmiller Barth, A history of the Ohlone Indians of Mission Santa Clara, San Jose State University, (1990)

[53] The Guardian, Junípero Serra's brutal story in spotlight as pope prepares for canonization (2015)

[54] Richard White, Naming America’s Own Genocide, The Nation (2016)

[55] MARIE CHRISTINE DUGGAN, With and Without an Empire: Financing for California Missions Before and After 1810, Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 85, No. 1, (2016)

[56] MARIE CHRISTINE DUGGAN, With and Without an Empire: Financing for California Missions Before and After 1810, Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 85, No. 1, (2016)

[57] California Exec Order N-15-19, https://tribalaffairs.ca.gov/

[58] Alexei Koseff, ‘It’s called a genocide’: Gavin Newsom apologizes to California’s Native Americans, SF Chronicle, June 18, 2019

[59] Jill Cowan, ‘It’s Called Genocide’: Newsom Apologizes to the State’s Native Americans, The New York Times, June 19, 2019

[60] California Exec Order N-15-19, https://tribalaffairs.ca.gov/

The People's History of Silicon Valley

The Silicon Valley Concentration Camps